From Snakes to SNAICS: Positioning Nepal

Kathmandu- Let’s begin with a simple question: What exactly is a snake, and how does it differ from other reptiles? Snakes are limbless reptiles that belong to the suborder Serpentes and the order Squamata. Like nearly all reptiles, snakes are ectothermic (cold-blooded) and predatory.

Key distinguishing features include the absence of limbs, vocal cords, external ears, and eyelids. Most snakes have only one functional lung, with the right lung being well-developed and the left lung either small, vestigial, or completely absent. However, exceptions such as boas and pythons possess a small, vestigial left lung, a remnant of their two-lunged ancestors.

Additionally, snakes have long, slender bodies and specialized skulls, with highly flexible jaws — an adaptation known as cranial kinesis. This allows them to swallow prey much larger than their head, a unique characteristic of many snake species.

Now, let’s take an example of an imposter: The European glass lizard (Pseudopus apodus) is a legless lizard found in parts of southern and eastern Europe.

But don’t be fooled—despite its appearance (which is an evolutionary adaptation), it is not a true snake but a lizard that has evolved to lose its limbs.

Legless lizards like the European glass lizard typically move in a side-to-side motion and have less spinal flexibility compared to snakes.

The presence of external ear openings, vestigial limbs, movable eyelids, and the ability to regenerate its tail, among other features, firmly places the glass lizard in the lizard family. This is true despite its snake-like appearance.

There are more than 3,000 species of snakes on the planet. They are found everywhere except on major landmasses such as Antarctica, Iceland, Ireland, Greenland, and New Zealand. This is due to climatic constraints (extreme cold) and historical biogeographical isolation, which prevented their colonization.

Approximately 600 species are venomous, and only about 200—around seven percent—are capable of killing or significantly wounding a human.

Snakes are very interesting creatures with remarkable interspecies variability in size and shape. The Barbados threadsnake (Tetracheilostoma 𝘤𝘢𝘳𝘭𝘢𝘦), reaching a maximum adult length of only 10.4 cm (4.1 inches) and an average weight of 0.6 g (0.02 ounces), is thought to be the world’s smallest known snake.

Now, moving on to the other side of the spectrum, the reticulated python (𝘔𝘢𝘭𝘢𝘺𝘰𝘱𝘺𝘵𝘩𝘰𝘯 𝘳𝘦𝘵𝘪𝘤𝘶𝘭𝘢𝘵𝘶𝘴), found in South and Southeast Asia, is considered the longest snake in the world.

The longest reticulated python ever recorded measured 32 feet 9 1/2 inches, found on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi in 1912. Also, the green anaconda (𝘌𝘶𝘯𝘦𝘤𝘵𝘦𝘴 𝘮𝘶𝘳𝘪𝘯𝘶𝘴), native to the swamps and rivers of South America, holds the title of the largest and heaviest snake in the world. It can grow up to 30 feet in length and weigh more than 500 pounds (227 kg).

Before we move ahead, I want to highlight the difference between poison and venom, as some people mistakenly refer to snakes as “poisonous” instead of “venomous.” There is a fundamental difference between the two, based on how the toxins enter the body of the victim. Ronald’s rule for distinguishing between the two is straightforward: “If you bite it and you die, it’s poison; but if it bites you and you die, that’s venom.” Therefore, we use the term “venomous” instead of “poisonous” to describe snakes, as they possess a specialized system for injecting venom into their victims. For example, cobras use their fangs to inject venom.

Now that we know the basics about snakes, let’s take a look at an aspect of them that they are notorious for in the minds of the general public. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 5.4 million people worldwide are bitten by snakes each year, with 1.8 to 2.7 million cases of envenomation.

Another shocking statistic is that around 81,410 to 137,880 people die each year from snake bites, and approximately three times as many amputations and other permanent disabilities are caused by snakebites annually.

As a neglected public health issue in many tropical and subtropical countries, snakebites most commonly occur in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

In fact, in Asia alone, up to 2 million people are envenomed by snakes each year. Zooming in further, in India, it is estimated that up to 2.8 million people are bitten by snakes each year, with 46,900 fatalities—more than in any other country.

This high snakebite fatality rate can be attributed to factors such as high population density, a snake-friendly climate, agricultural exposure, and the prevalence of venomous species like the common krait, Russell’s viper, Indian cobra, and sawscaled viper—collectively known as the ‘big four’—which account for about 90% of snakebites in the country.

Speaking with us, Jose Louies, the CEO of the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) and founder of indiansnakes.org, shared his perspective on the ongoing efforts to address this issue.

“Launched in 2010, the website and its associated mobile applications provide a real-time, free knowledge base for people across India,” he said. “The goal is to educate the public about snakes and reduce the fear surrounding snakebites. Our aim is to foster awareness so that both people and snakes can coexist without harm.”

He added, “Since then, we have maintained this site as one of the leading platforms for information related to the snakes of India. Several volunteers work behind the scenes, contributing their time, skills, and knowledge to ensure that the site remains updated.”

He also suggested that a similar approach could be invaluable in Nepal. “A similar initiative in Nepal could play a crucial role in collecting, managing, and monitoring snake and snakebite data in real time. This would help reduce the impact of snakebites across the country,” he explained. “Centralized and real-time data management is key to effective responses, including emergency support and antivenom distribution.”

However, he noted the primary challenge: “The real challenge lies in bringing various stakeholders onto one platform and working together as a unified team to address this issue.”

It’s important to highlight that most snake species are non-venomous and pose minimal risk to humans. However, even large non-venomous snakes, such as the reticulated python, green anaconda, Burmese python, and African rock python, can be dangerous.

These snakes, which can grow to over 15 feet long, rely on their immense strength to constrict their prey, leading to circulatory arrest rather than suffocation. This means that the prey dies due to cardiovascular collapse or respiratory failure, not from suffocating in the traditional sense. These large constrictors use their powerful muscles to compress their prey, causing it to lose blood circulation or its ability to breathe, which ultimately leads to death.

The term ‘suffocation’ is sometimes used but is a misnomer, as the actual cause of death is typically asphyxiation or circulatory collapse, which can prevent oxygen from reaching vital organs. Their diet includes mammals like deer, and they subdue their prey using muscle strength, not venom.

While they generally avoid humans, they may become aggressive if threatened or during feeding. Fatalities are uncommon but can occur if these snakes are mishandled or kept as exotic pets without proper safety precautions.

One such example is the Burmese python (𝘗𝘺𝘵𝘩𝘰𝘯 𝘣𝘪𝘷𝘪𝘵𝘵𝘢𝘵𝘶𝘴), one of the largest snake species, which occurs throughout Southern and Southeast Asia, including eastern India, southeastern Nepal, and is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.

In the wild, they typically grow to about 5 meters (16 feet), although unconfirmed reports suggest some may exceed 7 meters (23 feet). The longest verified Burmese python, measuring 5.79 meters (19 feet), was caught on July 10, 2023, in South Florida’s Big Cypress National Preserve. You might be wondering, “Florida?” Stay tuned as we explore this surprising location later in the article.

On the other hand, bites from venomous species can be far more dangerous and potentially fatal, causing a range of effects from neurotoxicity (which can lead to paralysis and respiratory failure) to hemotoxicity (resulting in severe bleeding, kidney failure, and tissue necrosis, which could cause permanent disability or limb amputation). The severity of these effects depends on the type of venom, the snake species, the amount injected, and the victim’s overall health.

Since we’ve briefly touched upon the public health and medical aspects of snakebites, let’s explore the topic more comprehensively through an interview with Dr. Prof. Sanjib Kumar Sharma (MBBS, MD, DM, FRCP, FISN, FACC), a renowned Heart and Kidney Specialist and expert in snake envenomation.

Currently serving as the Rector at B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences in Dharan, Nepal, Dr. Sharma brings invaluable medical expertise to the discussion. He is also a coauthor of ‘Venomous Snakes of Nepal’, a significant contribution to the field, which further enhances his credibility on the subject.

Q: Let’s start with the basics: What is antivenom, and how does it work?

Dr. Sharma: Antivenom is essentially a medicine used to treat snakebites. To produce it, a small amount of snake venom is injected into an animal, usually a horse. The animal’s immune system creates antibodies to fight off the venom. These antibodies are then extracted from the animal’s blood, purified, and preserved as antivenom. When administered to a snakebite victim, the antivenom works to neutralize the circulating venom in the body, acting as an antidote.

Q: How are snakebites diagnosed and treated in hospital settings, especially given the variety of snake species?

Dr. Sharma: In Nepal and neighboring countries, we lack immediate diagnostic tests for most snakebites, except for Russell’s viper. For other bites, clinical diagnosis is key. Snake venom can cause two main types of reactions:

1. Neurotoxic Effects: Venom from snakes like kraits and cobras attacks the nervous system. It starts with paralysis of the eyelids (ptosis) and gradually progresses downwards, potentially leading to respiratory failure if not treated promptly. This type of paralysis is common in bites from krait and cobra species. Krait bites often occur at night, especially when victims are asleep. This is particularly dangerous because the victim may not notice the bite until the paralysis sets in, which can progress to respiratory failure if medical help isn’t received in time.
2. Hemotoxic Effects: Venom from pit vipers and true vipers, like Russell’s viper, affects the blood. It can cause internal bleeding, as well as bleeding from mucous membranes and various body orifices. These effects are often fatal if untreated.

Q: If there’s no specific antivenom available for a particular snake species, how is the patient managed?

Dr. Sharma: In Nepal, we import antivenom from India, primarily targeting four species: the common krait, common cobra, Russell’s viper, and saw-scaled viper. However, the saw-scaled viper hasn’t been recorded in Nepal, and Russell’s viper bites are quite rare. In practice, our antivenom is most effective against bites from the common cobra and common krait. In cases where antivenom isn’t available or effective, the primary focus is on providing artificial respiratory support. For example, if a patient is bitten by a king cobra (not technically a true cobra species) or certain krait species like Wall’s krait, artificial ventilation can be lifesaving. Medicines like atropine and neostigmine are also used, especially for cobra bites, but they are less effective for krait envenomation.

Q: What should a person do immediately after a snakebite, before they can reach medical help?

Dr. Sharma: The only proven first aid is to get the patient to a hospital where antivenom treatment is available. For cobra and krait bites, the victim should ideally reach the hospital within one hour. In rural areas, motorcycles are often the quickest means of transport, enabling faster access to care. We have a saying in Nepali: “सर्पले टोके स्वयंसेवक समाऊ, अस्पतालले जान जोगाऊ,” which translates to: “Bitten by a snake? Grab a motorcycle, reach the hospital, save a life.”

Q: Can you summarize key steps for snakebite victims?

Dr. Sharma: These key steps can also be found in the book Venomous Snakes of Nepal: A Photographic Guide, authored by S.K. Sharma, D.P. Pandey, K.B. Shah, F. Tillack, F. Chappuis, C.L. Thapa, E. Alirol, and U. Kuch:

1. Don’t panic. Most snakes aren’t venomous, and even venomous bites may not inject venom (dry bites).
2. Don’t try to catch or kill the snake. However, if the snake is already dead, bring it for identification.
3. In a snakebite emergency, the most important action is getting the victim to a treatment center as quickly as possible. Immobilizing the bitten limb with a splint or sling can help, but it is secondary to rapid transport to medical care.
4. Don’t run; let others carry you. Preferably use a motor vehicle for transport.
5. Don’t cut, burn, or suck the bite site. Avoid herbs, chemicals, or ice.
6. Seek immediate medical help. Time is crucial, especially for neurotoxic bites.

Q: Have there been cases where victims brought live or dead snakes to the hospital? How does this help with treatment?

Dr. Sharma: Yes, this happens quite often. Research in Nepal shows that about 3% to 19% of snakebite victims bring the snake with them. If the snake is identified as non-venomous, it can immediately reassure the patient that there’s no danger. If it’s venomous, knowing the species helps guide the treatment.

In one case, a patient brought in a krait, a snake for which we don’t have effective antivenom. The medical team quickly referred the patient to B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS), where the patient developed respiratory paralysis.

With artificial ventilation support, the patient survived. While it can be helpful, we don’t encourage people to kill snakes, as they play a vital role in the ecosystem. Snakes generally bite defensively, not offensively. Many bites don’t inject venom at all (dry bites), so identifying the snake can help in deciding the course of action.

Q: Where does Nepal source its antivenom, and why?

Dr. Sharma: We import antivenom from India because our snake species are quite similar to those found in India. The government imports the antivenom and distributes it across the country to designated snakebite treatment centers.

We rely on Indian antivenom because it has been shown to be effective for the snakes commonly found in Nepal. However, it’s important to note that while some species of snakes in Africa and Nepal may appear to be the same, the antivenom from one region may not work for the snakebites from the other region.

For example, the venom from the cobras found in Nepal and Africa may appear similar, but the antivenom used for cobras in Africa may not be effective for cobras in Nepal. This difference can be attributed to variations in venom composition, which means the same type of snake in different regions might require different treatments.

Q: Are there side effects of antivenom, and how do doctors manage them?

Dr. Sharma: Yes, antivenom can have side effects. The most serious one is anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction that can cause a sudden drop in blood pressure and breathing difficulties. To reduce this risk, healthcare providers often administer a small dose of adrenaline before giving the antivenom. Anaphylaxis is rare but can be life-threatening if not managed quickly. Other side effects like fever and mild allergic reactions are more common but less severe.

Q: Do doctors need to review a patient’s medical history for potential allergies before administering antivenom?

Dr. Sharma: In emergency situations, there’s no time for a detailed review of medical history. The risk of not giving antivenom far outweighs the potential side effects. About 12% of patients may experience serious reactions, but this is manageable compared to the high risk of death from untreated venom. It’s a calculated risk we have to take.

Q: How many snakebite treatment centers are there in Nepal?

Dr. Sharma: Currently, there are 105 snakebite treatment centers across Nepal. You can find the province-wise and district-wise distribution, along with other important details, on the website: Snake bite Nepal.

Q: Any final thoughts on the importance of snakes in our ecosystem?

Dr. Sharma: Snakes are crucial for ecological balance. They help control rodent populations, benefiting farmers and reducing crop damage. Most snakebites are defensive, and snakes usually give a warning before biting, like the hissing sound of a cobra. It’s important to understand that snakes don’t attack out of aggression; they bite when they feel threatened. Conservation efforts are essential, and we need to educate people about the importance of these reptiles.

That brings us to the end of our interview with Dr. Prof. Sanjib Kumar Sharma. We thank him for sharing his valuable insights on snake bite management.

Now, looking to the north of India, Nepal is a landlocked country with three ecological divisions: the Terai (plains), the Hills, and the Mountains. Around 17 snake species have been found to be venomous among Nepal’s 89 known snake species, mostly belonging to the Elapidae and Viperidae families.

Nearly 10 of these venomous species can be found in the hilly and mountainous regions, with the green pit viper and mountain pit viper being widely distributed and frequently encountered in these areas of Nepal.

Some of the highly venomous snake species found in the hilly and lower mountain regions include the monocellate cobra (𝘕𝘢𝘫𝘢 𝘬𝘢𝘰𝘶𝘵𝘩𝘪𝘢), Himalayan krait (𝘉𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘶𝘴 𝘣𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘰𝘪𝘥𝘦𝘴), greater black krait (𝘉𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘶𝘴 𝘯𝘪𝘨𝘦𝘳), king cobra (𝘖𝘱𝘩𝘪𝘰𝘱𝘩𝘢𝘨𝘶𝘴 𝘩𝘢𝘯𝘯𝘢𝘩), Himalayan pit viper (𝘎𝘭𝘰𝘺𝘥𝘪𝘶𝘴 𝘩𝘪𝘮𝘢𝘭𝘢𝘺𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘴), Tibetan pit viper (𝘏𝘪𝘮𝘢𝘭𝘢𝘺𝘰𝘱𝘩𝘪𝘴 𝘵𝘪𝘣𝘦𝘵𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘴), mountain pit viper (𝘖𝘷𝘰𝘱𝘩𝘪𝘴 𝘮𝘰𝘯𝘵𝘪𝘤𝘰𝘭𝘢), Himalayan habu pit viper (𝘗𝘳𝘰𝘵𝘰𝘣𝘰𝘵𝘩𝘳𝘰𝘱𝘴 𝘴𝘱.), white-lipped pit viper (𝘛𝘳𝘪𝘮𝘦𝘳𝘦𝘴𝘶𝘳𝘶𝘴 𝘢𝘭𝘣𝘰𝘭𝘢𝘣𝘳𝘪𝘴), and Kramer’s pit viper (𝘛𝘳𝘪𝘮𝘦𝘳𝘦𝘴𝘶𝘳𝘶𝘴 𝘴𝘦𝘱𝘵𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘴).

Now coming to the plains, a region plagued by the highest number of snakebite cases in Nepal, the main venomous snakes of the Terai region include the common krait (𝘉𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘶𝘴 𝘤𝘢𝘦𝘳𝘶𝘭𝘦𝘶𝘴), common cobra (𝘕𝘢𝘫𝘢 𝘯𝘢𝘫𝘢), banded krait (𝘉𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘶𝘴 𝘧𝘢𝘴𝘤𝘪𝘢𝘵𝘶𝘴), Russell’s viper (𝘋𝘢𝘣𝘰𝘪𝘢 𝘳𝘶𝘴𝘴𝘦𝘭𝘪), monocellate cobra (𝘕𝘢𝘫𝘢 𝘬𝘢𝘰𝘶𝘵𝘩𝘪𝘢), and king cobra (𝘖𝘱𝘩𝘪𝘰𝘱𝘩𝘢𝘨𝘶𝘴 𝘩𝘢𝘯𝘯𝘢𝘩). Among these, the common krait is the most fatal, followed by the common cobra being second.

With a population of about 31 million, an estimated 20,000 to 37,661 people are bitten by snakes in Nepal, resulting in 1,000 to 3,225 deaths annually [Ref. 1, 2]. However, these statistics should be taken with a grain of salt, as the actual number of snakebite cases is likely higher due to many unreported cases. Additionally, there is an epidemiological knowledge gap due to inconsistent and incomplete hospital records of admitted snakebite cases.

With more than half of the population living in the Terai and the majority engaged in agricultural activities (65%), this region has the highest incidence of human and animal snakebites, with an estimated 261 cases per 100,000 people each year.

According to the research study “Analysis of News Media-Reported Snakebite Envenoming in Nepal during 2010–2022” by Deb P. Pandey and Narayan B. Thapa, an analysis was conducted on 308 cases of snakebite envenomation reported in 199 news media articles published between 2010 and 2022.

Descriptive statistics, Wilcoxon, and Chi-square tests were used to examine the causes of snakebites, victims’ treatment-seeking behavior, and the outcomes. These cases, which provided substantial data, represented 48 districts, primarily located in the Terai region of Nepal.

The conclusions were as follows: the majority of reported envenomated patients were children, and most envenomings resulted from cobra bites. Consultation with traditional healers often complicated snakebite management. In many cases, deaths occurred due to a lack of medical intervention, underscoring the severe consequences of untreated snakebites in Nepal.

Additionally, several deaths in urban areas, as well as in the mountains and higher hills of Nepal, highlight the urgent need for snakebite management interventions in the most affected districts. Therefore, it is crucial to promptly admit snakebite victims to nearby treatment centers, avoiding non-recommended prehospital interventions.

Strategies for preventing snakebites and managing venom effects should also focus on hilly and mountainous districts, where snakebite-related deaths have been reported.

Another research study, published in 2016, assessed “Public perceptions of snakes and snakebite management: Implications for conservation and human health in southern Nepal.”

This study involved face-to-face interviews with 150 randomly selected inhabitants of the Buffer Zone around Chitwan National Park, using a cross-sectional mixed research design with structured and semi-structured questionnaires conducted from January to February 2013.

The results revealed that 43% of respondents disliked snakes, 49% would exterminate all venomous snakes, and 86% feared them. Farmers held the most negative views, while teachers were the most ambivalent toward snakes. Respondents generally could not identify different snake species and were largely unaware of the importance of snake conservation or ways to prevent snakebites.

Superstitions, such as the belief in a snake god and the notion that snakes can absorb poisonous gases from the atmosphere, were among the many factors that seemed to contribute to the negative perceptions of snakes among Buffer Zone residents.

Now, you might wonder why we should protect snake species when they cause so many fatalities, especially considering that public opinion, as shown in the study above, is overwhelmingly driven by fear of them. Wouldn’t it seem wiser to eliminate snakebite cases at the source by removing snakes altogether?

However, nature doesn’t work that way. Have you heard of the “Cobra Effect”? The term originated during British colonial rule in India. To address the rising number of venomous cobras in Delhi, the British government offered a bounty for each dead cobra.

Initially, this incentive worked: people brought in many dead cobras, and sightings of cobras in Delhi decreased. But over time, the number of dead cobras presented for rewards continued to rise. Why?

It turned out that some enterprising individuals had begun breeding cobras to claim the bounty. When the government discovered this scheme, they ended the bounty program. In response, the breeders released the now-worthless cobras into the wild, leading to an even larger cobra population in Delhi.

This story illustrates how an apparent solution to a problem can sometimes make the situation worse. In conclusion, conservation—not elimination—is essential. Eliminating snakes could worsen the situation in ways we may not yet fully understand. Snakes play a crucial role in ecosystems, particularly by controlling rodent populations, which helps prevent diseases like Lyme disease and other rodent-borne illnesses.

Additionally, snakes contribute to biodiversity by managing pest populations, supporting the survival of other vital species within the ecosystem. They are also fascinating creatures that enrich biodiversity and deserve to be preserved for future generations.

To understand the challenges faced by Nepal and other South Asian countries, it’s essential to adopt a perspective unique to this region—one that differs from the lens through which we view Western countries. A clear example of this contrast can be seen in the issue of invasive species, such as the Burmese python in Florida’s Everglades.

These non-native snakes, introduced through the exotic pet trade, prey on native wildlife, disrupting local ecosystems. Despite ongoing efforts like hunting and regulation, the problem persists due to the pythons’ adaptability and rapid spread.

In contrast, South Asian countries—members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—face distinct challenges. Here, the focus is on conserving native species, such as the Indian python (also known as the Asiatic rock python), the king cobra, and even the Burmese python, all of which are threatened by habitat loss, illegal trade, and over-exploitation.

Snakebites, especially in rural areas, are a significant public health issue, exacerbated by limited access to medical care. Additionally, conservation efforts are undermined by weak law enforcement and rampant poaching. While Western countries grapple with the ecological impact of invasive snakes, South Asia faces the dual challenges of conserving native species and addressing the public health threat posed by snakebites.

The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) in Nepal protects various species under Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. This includes the Asiatic rock python (Python molurus), the only snake species exclusively listed under this Act. Other protected reptile species under this schedule include the golden monitor lizard (𝘝𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘴 𝘧𝘭𝘢𝘷𝘦𝘴𝘤𝘦𝘯𝘴) and the gharial (𝘎𝘢𝘷𝘪𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘴 𝘨𝘢𝘯𝘨𝘦𝘵𝘪𝘤𝘶𝘴), both of which face significant conservation threats due to habitat loss and illegal trade.

However, many other snake species in Nepal, such as the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), painted keelback (Xenochrophis cerasogaster), and rough-tailed sand boa (Erix conicus), are under significant threat yet lack comprehensive legal protection. While these species are recognized as vulnerable, Nepal’s current wildlife conservation framework does not extend full legal safeguards to them.

Although broader measures like habitat protection within national parks and reserves indirectly benefit these species, targeted conservation initiatives and legal protections are often absent. The situation underscores the need for species-specific conservation efforts and updated legal frameworks to address emerging threats and ongoing research findings.

To address these challenges, initiatives like the “Save The King” campaign, spearheaded by Kamal Devkota and his team, focus on conserving king cobra populations in Nepal.

Launched in early 2022, the campaign aims to mitigate human-cobra conflicts through community engagement, rescues, and relocations of king cobras. It also raises awareness about snake safety, first aid, and the broader importance of reptile conservation.

As you may know by now, the Terai region is a hotspot for human-snake interactions in Nepal, making it crucial to focus on this aspect in our conservation efforts. Naturally, we sought insights from someone with direct field experience in this area.

In a recent conversation with Dev Narayan Mandal from the Mithila Wildlife Trust, he discussed the organization’s pioneering efforts in snake rescue, relocation, and treatment, which were initiated in the Dhanusha district of Nepal.

“Mithila Wildlife Trust started snake rescue operations in 2012,” Mandal shared. He continued, “Before that, there were only a few individuals who had academically studied or published papers on snakes, but none were actively involved in rescue efforts.

Since then, we have rescued over 4,200 snakes. Initially, we handled up to 897 rescues in a year, but in the last fiscal year, the number has reduced to around 67, as we now focus solely on venomous or uncommon species.” Mandal highlighted their extensive community outreach, explaining, “We have conducted approximately 484 community interaction and awareness programs.

These efforts aim to educate the public on snake identification, snakebite mitigation, human-snake coexistence, and first-aid techniques for snakebite victims, particularly during transportation to hospitals.

Mithila Wildlife Trust collaborates with like-minded organizations and individuals committed to ethical snake rescue. In partnership with the Nepal Toxinology Association and Save The Lives Society, we have organized the Nepal Snake Festival twice since last year. This two day event spreads mass awareness about human-snake coexistence and first-aid methods, reaching around 4,000 to 5,000 participants, including farmers, students, teachers, health workers, media personnel, community forest user groups, and local communities.”

He also noted the positive impact of their efforts, adding, “Inspired by our initiatives, other local organizations have started hosting similar awareness events in their regions.”

However, Mandal voiced concerns about unsafe rescue practices: “There are very few professional snake rescuers who use proper equipment, such as snake bags, boxes, and hooks, and who avoid posing with the snakes. These rescuers ensure the safe release of snakes without causing harm to either humans or the animals.

Unfortunately, there are also stuntmen who handle snakes recklessly, posing with them for social media attention. This behavior increases the risk for both the snakes and the handlers. Just last year, one such individual died from a king cobra bite while attempting to grab it by the neck.”

Mandal’s insights highlight the dedication of Mithila Wildlife Trust to ethical wildlife rescue and underscore the ongoing challenges posed by unsafe and sensationalist practices in the field.

In a significant step forward, a recent two-day expert meeting and workshop on Herpetology and Public Health, themed “Snakes and Snakebite Management in Nepal: Towards Improved Collaboration between Herpetologists, Health Professionals, and Artificial Intelligence,” took place on November 6-7 at the Himalaya Hotel in Lalitpur, located in the heart of Nepal, the Kathmandu Valley.

This landmark event brought together local health professionals dealing with snakebite cases and herpetologists from across Nepal to strengthen interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral collaborations.

The discussions focused on challenges in snake identification, knowledge gaps in snake distribution and behavior, and the creation of a national snake photo library aimed at developing the first AI model to classify snakes native to Nepal.

The workshop was a significant milestone in fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, particularly in addressing snakebite management and advancing snake conservation efforts. Organized by a diverse coalition of experts, the event successfully united local health professionals, herpetologists, and researchers, marking the beginning of a promising partnership to tackle the complex challenges posed by snakebites.

Among the key contributors were Dr. Isabelle Bolon, a One Health researcher, veterinarian, and biologist specializing in laboratory animal science; Professor François Chappuis, a medical doctor specializing in internal medicine and travel & tropical medicine; and Dr. Rafael Ruiz de Castañeda, who leads the One Health Unit alongside Dr. Isabelle Bolon. Dr. Ruiz de Castañeda has an interdisciplinary and international background at the intersection of wild animal ecology and veterinary microbiology.

Dr. Bolon served as the veterinary and scientific director of laboratory animal facilities at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva. Professor Chappuis currently heads the Division of Tropical and Humanitarian Medicine (DTHM) of the Geneva University Hospitals.

Their insights played a pivotal role in shaping the workshop’s discussions and outcomes. Dr. Bolon described the discussions as “rich and inspiring,” emphasizing the value of sharing knowledge rooted in practical field experiences. “Combating snakebite in Nepal requires not only medical resources but also a deep understanding of snake distribution, behavior, and habitats,” she noted.

Her perspective underscores the potential for integrating local expertise in herpetology into the healthcare system, suggesting the recognition of “medical herpetologists,” similar to the role of medical entomologists in mosquito-borne health issues.

Professor Chappuis shared his positive assessment of the event: “I am very satisfied with the workshop; there is a large number of competent professionals from different backgrounds in Nepal who are committed to snakes and snakebites, and this type of workshop is a rare opportunity to gather these professionals.”

His remarks highlight the importance of such interdisciplinary gatherings, where collective expertise can be harnessed to address the multifaceted challenges of snakebite management in Nepal.

One of the key takeaways from the workshop was the recognized need for a comprehensive archive of snake photos from Nepal. This repository would serve dual purposes—supporting conservation efforts by enhancing our understanding of snake diversity and distribution, and aiding public health initiatives through the development of an AI model for snake identification.

As Bolon pointed out, “A repository of images would be invaluable for improving our understanding of snake diversity and distribution, while also aiding in the development of an AI model for snake identification.”

She emphasized the role of citizen science, encouraging anyone with snake photos—from herpetologists and snake rescuers to paramedics and community members—to contribute their images by submitting them to the open online biodiversity platform, iNaturalist , thus supporting both conservation and public health.

The “Snakes of Nepal” challenge on iNaturalist is currently underway, running from September 19 to December 19, 2024. This challenge focuses on Nepal and invites participants to submit their own observations of snakes—captured in one or more photos—taken anywhere in the country at any time.

Only photos you have personally taken are eligible for submission. Entries featuring photos taken by others or shared without permission are not allowed. Captive snake photos are also excluded; only images of wild snakes will be accepted. While photos from any date can be submitted, they must be uploaded to iNaturalist within the challenge period (from 12:00 AM on Thursday, September 19, to 12:00 AM on Thursday, December 19, CEST).  Each submission must meet iNaturalist’s verification requirements, including the date the photo was taken and geo-referenced coordinates (latitude and longitude).

As of this writing, 279 observations have been recorded, representing 49 different snake species, contributed by 135 unique observers. The Burmese python is currently the most observed species, with 28 records, followed by the oriental rat snake (19), buff-striped keelback (17), checkered keelback (14), Chinese mountain pit viper (12), and Himalayan keelback (12).

I also took part in the challenge by uploading a photo of the buff-striped Keelback, a small, nonvenomous snake commonly found throughout South and Southeast Asia. I captured the photo on July 24, 2021, in Rajbiraj, Saptari, using my phone. Locally, this snake is known as ‘Harhara’ in the Maithili language. It is typically nonaggressive and primarily feeds on frogs and toads, as shown in the photo.

The workshop also marked the launch of the two-year SNAICS (Snakes, Artificial Intelligence & Communities) project, co-led by the University of Geneva and the BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences. This initiative aims to develop the first AI model for identifying snake species in Nepal, a tool that could significantly enhance the “zoological” diagnosis of snakebite incidents, enabling healthcare providers to make more informed decisions.  (For feedback or inquiries, you can reach me at amartyamishra027@gmail.com)